Case study snyder v phelps Essay Example for Free

Case study snyder v phelps Essay Snyder v. Phelps (2011) Fred Phelps, the pastor at the Westboro Church, along with his followers believes that God punishes the US for allowing homosexuality freedoms, especially within the military. To express their feelings the Westboro Church and its people sometimes picket military funerals in hopes that their voices will be heard. In 2006 Albert Snyders son who was a Lance Corporal for the United States Marine Corps was killed in the line of the duty during his time in Iraq. Matthew Snyder was killed in Anbar, Iraq when he was the gunner on a Humvee that ended up rolling after hitting something. The Westboro Church decided that they would picket Matthew Snyders funeral, notifying the sanction holding the funeral in advance what they planned on doing. When the Westboro Church and its followers arrived to picket this funeral they made sure to stage the picket on public land that was adjacent to a public street. Making sure that they didnt violate any written laws they also made sure to abide by anything that was appointed to them by the police taking care of the funeral. The Church members stood outside this church during the funeral reciting different hymns and verses from the Bible. Albert Snyder wasnt aware of what the signs said until after the whole funeral took place, claiming that he could really only see the tops and couldnt make out what they actually said. Following the funeral, Snyder noticed on the news that the signs some gruesome stuff such as, God Hates the USAI Thank God for 9/1 1, Thank God for Dead Soldiers, and Dont Pray for the USA. Snyder decided that he would then sue Fred Phelps, claiming that the picketing aused him and his family severe emotional distress. In his defense, Phelps argued that everything that took place that day was completely legal under the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution. The main issue that this case faced legally, was whether Westboros signs and comments while picketing Matthew Snyders funeral related to matters of public concern and in turn, decide whether there is too much protection under the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. The Supreme Court made it clear that they were only going to determine this ruling ased on matters of public concern as opposed to matters of purely private significance. The Supreme Court affirmed that the picketing amounted to speech on issues that are public; they felt as if one of the main things that the First Amendment covers is the right to picket based upon public issues. The Court felt as if although the signs that were used may fall short of refined social or political commentary, the issues they highlight the political and moral conduct of th e United States and its citizens, the fate of our Nation, homosexuality in the military, and scandals involving he Catholic clergy are all matters of public import. Albert Snyder realized all of the protection under the First Amendment but he claimed in rebuttal that that picketing was intended to shape an attack on Snyder over a rather private matter. Although the Supreme Court realized that Snyder had a strong claim at the time because of the circumstances that were evident, at the same time they must also hold to the law which noted that Maryland did not have a law imposing any types of restrictions on standpoint, the Supreme Court decided that Fred Phelps and his followers were in all f their legal rights to picket that funeral. The Court expressed their acknowledgment of the picketing of a US Soldiers funeral and the idea that many Americans would feel as if the Westboro Church was morally defective, but it rejected those factors as means for any type of lawsuit that could be tendered to the church. Though a Jury ended up awarding the family of Lance Corporal Matthew Snyder millions of dollars, the US Supreme Court upheld the circuit courts dismissal of the verdict over unruly circumstances. Freedom of speech is something that is considered one of the reatest things available by both sides of the political lanes. Both Conservatives and Liberals strongly believe in freedom of speech, but it is Liberals that are more likely to take the realm of expressing themselves publically. Liberals take pride in the idea of the political left, which basically outlines their devotion to Americas First Amendment the right to free speech. Although it is usually Liberals that we see voicing their opinion publically, the Westboro Church is overall a Conservative group because of what they stand for. Most people including the media portray and roclaim that the Westboro Church is a Liberal party but when you dig deeper you start to notice that isnt really the case. The Westboro Church has many things in common with those that claim to be Conservative; both are against marriage equality, both are for the replacement of constitutional government with religious dogma of their particular form of Christianity, both are for the reduction of the rights of minorities and women, and both are for getting rid of reproductive rights and family planning. The case of Snyder v. Phelps places before us a choice where we ust decide between the ethical values of basic respect versus the legal right of the First Amendment, freedom of speech. From an ethical perspective, it is easy to decide this case based upon the ideas that we adopted over time that all in all became a social norm. The ethical value of respect at a funeral will easily make someone choose the side of Snyders in this case Just because over time we have established that funerals are meant to mourn and to pay respect to not only the fallen but also the family of that person. Although it may be interpreted that the reason that the Westboro Church chose to take action the way that they did was because it was necessary to get their point across, ethically it is frowned upon because of how we know funerals are supposed to take place. The Westboro Church had many options to establish the point that they were trying to get across such as the newspaper, TV, or the radio, but instead they chose to do it at a US Marines funeral which ended up working in their favor gaining them national recognition. Potter Stewart, a once US Justice wrote with regards to Ethics that, Ethics is knowing the difference between hat you have a right to do and what is right to do. This quote explains the complete ethical aspect of this case because it describes how legally, the Westboro Church had every right to do what they did that day but ethically they were in the wrong intruding on the privacy of a grieving family at a funeral service less than 300 feet away. While the Justices made it clear that they understood where Albert Snyder and his family were coming from, they also stood firm with the idea that the Westboro Church was practicing the First Amendment which allows the freedom of speech to he public. One of the Justices following the court case described the entire case as powerful. It can stir people to action, move them to tears of both Joy and sorrow, and as it did here inflict great pain. On the facts before us, we cannot react to that pain by punishing the speaker. As a nation we have chosen a different course to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that we do not stifle public debate. The problem that is now faced upon America after the ruling that the Westboro Church did nothing wrong is, how much is too much in regards to a few igns becoming too many? Would enough signs have changed the nature of the content of Westboros message towards the Snyder family? The effect of this case on the public is something that isnt necessarily brought up but it is evident in many places because you have to realize that the public mainly sees this as a case of a family being stripped of what they believe should be a quiet and peaceful funeral. With the ruling ending the way it does it has the public wondering how far the First Amendment freedom of speech can really get you and the fine print behind our US Constitution. Overall, the US Supreme Court case touches many aspects whether it is ethically, legally, politically, or socially. It is hard for most ethically driven people to accept the fact that the Westboro Church not only got no penalty for what they did at Matthew Snyders funeral, but they also received no further details about stopping the picketing of funerals. In regards to legal aspects, this case set in stone that the First Amendment freedom of speech allows for not only speech that is accepted ethically but any type of speech that strays away from a personal attack. In most of he publics opinion the Westboro Church was in the wrong that day for not allowing a grieving family time to privately mourn the loss of a family member but although what they did was frowned upon they stayed within their legal rights which forces the court to drop their case. Although Albert Snyder lost this case his family was awarded millions of dollars and they also received support of the majority of the public against the Westboro Church and their actions not only that day, but in the future. Snyder left the courtroom after the ruling with not complete satisfaction but rust that his point was spread across America which was to notify them of what the Westboro Church does and what they caused not only himself, but his family.

How Aerial Travel and Cabin Pressure Adversely Affects the Human Body Essay Example for Free

How Aerial Travel and Cabin Pressure Adversely Affects the Human Body Essay The idea of humans traveling to the Moon or other areas out side of the Earths orbit is mostly scientific. However, when astronauts remain in space, having to re-balance the body to suit less or no gravity compared to the Earth could bring about many changes to the body. Scientists have found that the time required for recovery depends on the time spent in zero-gravity conditions. The longer one stays off of the Earths surface, the more damage can be caused. Strictly speaking, even a trip in an Airplane would require safety precautions to minimize damage to the body of this. For example, cabin pressure increased to maintain balance and prevent feeling different to a lower pressure. This essay will consist of two sections. The first will be of flight effects within the Earths hemisphere, and how to perhaps prevent damage to the body. The second, and longer section deals with space travel through Zero-gravity and effects of weightlessness on the body and the counter-measures to prevent damage to the body. Section 1, flight effects on the passengers, specifically dealing with cabin pressure: Airplanes fly at the cruising altitude of around 33000 feet, or approximately 10000 meters. Because the cruising altitude has a cabin pressure lower than air pressure on ground or even under sea-level, the oxygen availability is less and gases within the body expand. This causes the oxygen saturation level of the blood to reduce, which can lead to mild hypoxia, the reduced supply of oxygen to the tissues around the body. Due to the effects of hypoxia, alcohol consumption would affect the brain much more than it would on Earth. As the aircraft makes its decent back to Earth, air must be allowed to flow into the middle of the ear to equalize pressure differences. Passengers often can feel this change in air pressure. People with ear, nose and sinus infections are usually advised to avoid flying because of these changes in air pressure. Air travel in airplanes has less thank 20% humidity. This causes discomfort to the eyes, mouth and nose but does not risk the passengers health. This discomfort can be prevented by drinking liquids (water recommended) before and during the flight, and using skin moisturizers. Also passengers with short-sightedness or long-sightedness are advised to wear eye-glasses rather than contact lenses during flight as the contact lenses may dry out. In order to avoid de-hydration, passengers should drink non- alcoholic beverages. Section 2, how traveling through space affects humans Astronauts often experience Zero- Gravity during their travels through space. This zero gravity or micro gravity can bring about health concern to the body if astronauts remain in space for a long period of time. It would be much healthier for crews to live under artificial gravity. In order to prevent any biological changes in the body when experiencing zero gravity, scientists recommend a force of artificial gravity equal to a third of the Earths level of gravity. However, scientists still havent research affects of artificial gravity on humans but they know for a fact and there is an imbalance in the body due to the shifts of gravity levels. Artificial gravity prevents physiological changes from occurring. In zero-gravity, the body deteriorates. It takes less muscle to move around, so after a long period of time in space, muscles weaken so the body bends. Because there is no tension in space, muscles relax and after a while they atrophy as a result of disuse and eventually disappear. To prevent the fracture of bones, limbs and muscles, all space shuttles give the opportunity for astronauts to do rigorous exercise everyday to keep the muscles strong. Staying in Zero-gravity for months causes bones to lose mass and get thinner, as they are not carrying any weight. This means astronauts must go through rigorous trainings in the spacecraft everyday in order to keep muscle and bone strength. When a great deal of the crews precious time in space is spent exercising rather than doing science, money and potential knowledge are being squandered for the sake of health. It is a sacrifice, but a necessary one1 In space, receptors in the inner ear allow humans to sense direction. In space, ear receptors dont receive the same cues and the mind gets used to ignoring the inner ears feelings about balance. Hand-eye coordination, posture and balance are all affected by the disorientation of the mind. When astronauts return to earth, they are often overwhelmed by dizziness and have difficulty in maintaining balance. An example of the mind adapting to the new gravity less surroundings would be with Shannon Lucid, who was on board the Russian space Station MIR for six months. The astronaut said You just sort of get used to floating around but we also know that floating around is not all that astronauts do- they must resist the effects of micro gravity on the body. Also, no gravity means no resistance from growing, so some astronauts return to earth some 6 inches taller than when they left. It is only after a few months that they grow down/ shrink back to normal height. This is because of the unloading of spinal discs- because of lack of gravity, the discs in the spine are not holding up or don anything, so they tend to stretch rather than contract. Traveling through micro gravity causes bodily fluids to shift from the lower body to the cephalic area (head), and so peoples faces tend to swell and become rounder than they are on earth. When the brain senses a higher amount of blood than usual, it interprets the situation that there is now an overall increase in the total volume of fluids in the body. The brain responds by triggering the excretion of fluids, making astronauts prone to dehydration. Also, the fluid redistribution can shrink legs as the bones are weaker. These fluids pass through the kidneys, causing kidney filtration rate to increase, bone loss can cause Kidney stones. Fluids that leave the body include calcium loss and bone demineralization. The loss of blood plasma causes temporary Anemia upon the return to Earth. Some crew members get space anemia. Scientists are concerned about the affects of catching this disease on over all crew performance. Blood volume may decrease by 10 percent. The increase of fluids in the head causes the same feeling as when one has a cold and feels blocked in. in space astronauts begin to lose their sense of taste, causing the craving for strong flavorings in the food such as horseradish, mustard and taco sauce. Fluid loss, lack of exercise and diminished appetite cause weight loss as astronauts tend not to eat as much as they would on earth. Meals and exercise are planned to prevent excessive loss. Zero-gravity affects the cardio-vascular system. On earth we must cope with gravity, which sustains or slows down the blood-flow. In zero gravity, there is no gravity force, causing the heart to slow down due to the decreased demands of blood as it travels more freely. The immune system in the body is also affected by weightlessness. In space, one is exposed to illness as the immune response lowers and numbers of anti-bodies decrease after a long exposure to micro gravity. Approximately half of all astronauts are affected by this unpleasant syndrome which affects nausea, headache, lethargy and sweating (taken from NASA sources). Also, minor effects of weightlessness on the body include puffiness in the face, flatulence, weight loss, nasal congestion and often sleeping disturbances. Upon returning to earth, recovery time depends on the duration of stay in space. Muscles are weak and the body is not used to gravity forces, (causing them to feel dizzy) and so some astronauts are taken back in stretchers. This shows why astronauts need to be at the peak of fitness. If in the near future the human race would build space stations as tourist resorts, some would prefer hotels with zero-gravity and some would want partial gravity, which would bring about competition like hotels on earth, which would drive prices low. As gravity affects all biological, physical and chemical processes on earth, building an International Space Station gives new opportunity to study a world without gravity and its affect on animals and other living organisms. Observing the weightlessness effect on these living organisms could teach scientists about biological processes on earth, such as aging and osteoporosis. In the end, we can see that human travel through space is safer under artificial gravity when compared to astronauts being exposed to weightlessness, micro gravity or zero gravity (all three mean the same). Most of the problems mentioned such as fluid loss and muscle deterioration would not cause problems as long as the crew remained in a weightless environment. Remaining in a zero-gravity environment for over a long period of time could cause problems, however. In 1987, in the later stages of his 326-day mission, Russian Yuri Romanenko was fatigued both physically and mentally due to traveling through space. The majority of his day was spent sleeping regaining strength, in the meantime his bones were deteriorating. Some say if many like Romanenko stayed in space for much longer, he may not have survived re-entry to the Earth. Returning to Earth could cause problems as the body is much weaker due to demineralization and atrophy of the bones and shortage of red blood cells. Ones balan ce must now again be readjusted causing many astronauts to feel dizzy when back to a strong g force gravity on earth. Whether or not the large amount of time and money spent on keeping astronauts fit during space flight is worth the scientific findings is debatable. Physiological effects need to be prevented as much a possible. Again, this is usually prevented by rigorous exercise and micro gravity could still be a danger to the astronauts health. Many scientists believe that the benefits of transporting/sending out machines (robots) and humans to space, despite the health issues, are nothing compared to the huge benefit that society will receive. Humans will not be perfectly suited to living in a weightless environment, but that wont stop Astrobiologists and many other research firms like NASA from exploring space. The many benefits of space exploration such as technological knowledge and inspiration easily outweigh the negative aspects. Bibliography: Sources were from Newspapers, CDs, web sites and a large extract of a book in one of the web-pages. Most web sites accessed on the 11th December 2003 and 9th January 2004. 1) http://library.thinkquest.org/C003763/index.php?page=adapt02 2) www.permanent.com/s-nograv.htm 3) http://library.thinkquest.org/C003763/index.php%3fpage=adapt02 4) www.spacefuture.com/habitat/zerog.shtml 5) http://mos.org/cst/article/77/6.html 6) http://school.discovery.com/schooladventures/spacestation/basics/why.html 7) www.relaxincomfort.com/zerogravity_benefits.html 8) http://experts.about.com/q/2540/2677459.htm 9) www.uclas.ac.uk/facs/science/physastr/courses/space/ssyear1/sc1201.htm 10) http://www.who.int/ith/chapter02_01.html 11) Definitions from Microsoft Encarta 2003 Premium Suite CD 12) http://library.thinkquest.org/2606/Environmental_problems/water_pollution_-_effects.html (used for first idea of project) 1 http://library.thinkquest.org/C003763/index.php%3fpage=adapt02

Theories of autobiographical memory

Theories of autobiographical memory Autobiographical memory is characterised by individual and gender differences resulting from significant social interchanges and cultural milieus experienced during the early-developmental and mature phases of life. The study is designed to explore the theoretical concepts encompassing the different types, neural basis and several theoretical dimensions pertaining to the autobiographical memory. Keywords: autobiographical memory, cognitive behaviour, cognitive psychology Theories of Autobiographical Memory 3 Autobiographical Memory: A Theoretical Overview Autobiographical memory can be defined as an explicit memory of the past events (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 138) contributed by varying certain nostalgic factors including individuals psychological understanding, complex spoken or sign language, remembrance of interaction with parents and others, specific style of talking, self-representation, personal perspectives and narrative comprehension and production (Williams, Conway Cohen, 2008, p. 371). Numerous episodic memories or recollected events belonging to an individuals past life are referred as autobiographical memories, which have been identified as more complex form of mummeries as compared to the laboratory memories in accordance with several studies conducted by a number of cognitive psychologists. The episodic memory experiment conducted in a laboratory is usually concerned with a brief set of memory comprising of events that are based on certain words that are presented on a computer screen which primarily involve the use of a single sensory modality; exhibiting a diminutive variation in spatial, temporal, emotional, and narrative content or context that is personally irrelevant to the subject (Bauer, Stennes Haight, 2003, p. 29). On the other hand, in autobiographical memories events are recalled by involving multimodal senses as for example, taste, smell, touch, hearing, vision and kinesthesis which are meant to exhibit significant variation in content and context of spatial, temporal, emotional, and narrative reason and also demonstrate personal relevance (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 138). Autobiographical memories involve real-world stimuli and are extremely complex thus, necessitating supplementary theoretical and methodological considerations that are usually not required in a laboratory study involving simplified stimuli (Diamond, Lee Hayden, 2003, p. 831). The main objective of this study is to explore the theoretical underpinnings of cognitive psychology related to the autobiographical mem ory. The initial segment of the Theories of Autobiographical Memory 4 study aims to identify different types of autobiographical memory which extends to the middle segment which is meant to evaluate its neural basis. The later segment of the study explicates the different theories of the subject matter leading to the final conclusion. Types of Autobiographical Memories The systemic requirements pertaining to autobiographical memories involve individual senses as for example visualisation, hearing, and smell; a multimodal spatial system which reminds about the location concerning the objects and people; emotional system; linguistic system; a narrative system concerning casual interactions which does not necessarily involve the use of language (Rubin, Schrauf, Greenberg, 2003, p. 889); and an explicit memory system which facilitates in coordinating information with the rest (Schrauf Rubin, 2000, p. 621). Depending upon an individuals memory, each of these systems tends to process, organise and assign roles that are exhibited by specific cognitive-behaviours. A number of instrumental studies are employed to document the evidences proffered by each system including cognitive-behavioural studies, individual differences research, neuro-anatomy, neuropsychology, and neuro-imaging studies that are all helpful in identifying the traces of events collected within the autobiographical memory of an individual. It has been studied that autobiographical memory itself, does not represents a single entity rather it is complimented by multiple systems; each demonstrating diverse roles, organisation and processing of the relevant data (Conway Pleydell-Pearce, 2000, p. 267). The permanence of the autobiographical memory significantly relies on the continuity of these individual systems and their interaction with each other exactly similar to the fact how the recollected memories of an individual is a shared cultural knowledge obtained during the life span which subsequently attributes cultural expectations rather than individuals autobiographical memory (Berntsen Rubin, 2004, p. 430). Long term memory is Theories of Autobiographical Memory 5 principally divided into three major systems including implicit memory characterised by the memories relating to the performance of a task in the absence of conscious recollection; semantic memory characterised by factual reminiscence of events; and episodic memory characterised by the memories of information within specific time and space units (Eysenck Keane, 2005, p. 194). Autobiographical memory is predominantly concerned with both the episodic and semantic memories which are further classified into three sub-types including factual memory, self-schemata, generic memory and specific memories (Conway Pleydell-Pearce, 2000, p. 261) that are explicated as follows: Factual Memory The concept of factual memory has not been widely appraised within the theoretical paradigm of autobiographical memory. Factual memory is primarily concerned with the immediate facts and present happenings. Self Schemata Self-schemata as the name indicates, is the central conception within cognitive therapy and is characterised by self-knowledge or information about ones own personality, nature or temperament; which is far more complex and contextualised as compared to the known facts but is much generalised as compared to specific or generic memories (Conway Pleydell-Pearce, 2000, p. 264). Self-schemata are not just limited to a specific self-knowledge are the accumulated information connected to specific self-realisation which can be corresponded as facts or statements. The process involves economical organisation of information related to abstracted real-life experiences which greatly differs from the schematic knowledge and this divergence between original experiences and schematic knowledge transpires as the cognitive processes are likely to be influenced by the pre-established schemata similar to the encoding of an experience. It has been studied that the Theories of Autobiographical Memory 6 insistence and distortion of self-schemata may considerably vary depending upon an individuals perceptions (Dalgleish, 2004, p. 233). Generic Memories Generic memories are much specific in comparison with the self-schemata as concerning the memories of repeated and similar experiences however, specific memories are less abstracted as compared to generic memories. The mechanism of generic memories greatly resembles with self-schemata as it involves stacking of analogous experiences. The most critical aspect of the generic memories is the sensory and visual-spatial components which significantly limits the stacking of experiences making it much more specific than self-schemata. A number of disorders especially depression is associated with a greater likelihood of recalling generic memories based slightly vague reminiscence of experiences. Specific Memories Strong sensory and visual-spatial components are the key characteristics of specific memories which facilitate in the recollection episodic events from an individuals past life encompassing certain canonical categories of information such as ongoing activity, location, persons, others affect and own affect (Williams, Conway Cohen, 2008, p. 376). There is a vast difference between specific and long-term specific memories as the most recent happenings can be recollected by most individuals retaining specific memories of the recent past however, the retention of long-term memories of that particular event, by each person is vitally dubious (Conway, 2005) as it has been studied that the specific memories of recent past belong to a different memory system than long term specific memories (Carver Bauer, 2001, p. 728). The process of autobiographical reasoning stressing on the temporal, causal and thematic relationship and cultural interchanges develop narrative-like structures which are meant to form explicit linkage between several specific memories (Bluck Habermas, Theories of Autobiographical Memory 7 2000, p. 140). The theory suggests that the memories of recent past are not subjected to schemata-driven reconstruction processes and therefore, specific memories can be considered as much accurate and less-biased. Neural Basis of Autobiographical Memories The theoretical underpinnings pertaining to the neural origins of autobiographical memory are briefly explicated as follows: Prospection Mental simulation of probable future events can significantly help an individual to strategise and plan for the potential opportunities in pursuit of personal objectives and thereby, chances of failures can be minimised through consistent efforts. It has been studied that prospection is the concept of imagining oneself in future which subsequently allows an individual to engage in organised strategic behaviour to achieve pre-planned personal objectives (Bird Reese 2006, p. 620). Remembering past events and futuristic thinking are both hypothesised to reflect the parallel course of action which has been explicated by the sequential distribution of self-generated probable future events that have been found to replicate the distribution of recollected past events of numerous individuals during their life cycle (Spreng Levine, 2006, p. 1649). There is a possibility that the recollection of past memories and prospection of futuristic events might share neural substrate and similar mecha nism as studies suggest that, a decreasing fashion of phenomenological richness (DArgembeau Van der Linden, 2004, p. 846) and episodic specificity with age (Addis, Wong, Schacter, 2008, p. 1365) has been observed, in the past and future events. Navigation In accordance with the cognitive theory both the ego-centric and allo-centric perspectives facilitate in imagining the current status of an individual and the desired Theories of Autobiographical Memory 8 objectives followed by specific routes to navigate spatial environments through topographical orientation (Bird Reese 2006, p. 615). Lesser emphasis is drawn to an individuals stance as per the allo-centric perspective which is meant to identify the relation between landmarks with the help of engaging ones mind to discover the future prospects that are substantially indifferent to the immediate environment or to visualise or map the environment (Bird Reese 2006, p. 622). Theory of Mind Theory of mind facilitates in comprehending the social navigation process indicating that the communal interchanges between people are based on an individuals perspectives that are greatly influenced by the pre-conceived notions and in order to predict the action and reaction of others, it is imperative to understand their perspective (Garfield, Peterson, Perry, 2001). It has been studied that to understand others perspectives, individuals make efforts to self-project themselves by simulating the mindset of others (Blakemore Decety, 200). Default Mode Functions of brain studied during the resting phase of an individual are usually referred as default mode (Mazoyer et al., 2001) which is characterised by the unprepared thoughts or mind wandering condition in which the brain is becomes stimulus-independent (Raichle et al., 2001) and could be irrational at times (Mason et al., 2007). Both the external or internal environment has no significant influence on the brain functioning of an individual in a resting phase however, an internal mode of cognition may become activated which allows an individual to self-projection or imagine one-self in a desired condition without being influenced by the respective environment (Gusnard, Akbudak, Shulman, Raichle, 2001; Raichle Gusnard, 2005). Theories of Autobiographical Memory 9 Theories of Autobiographical Memory Development The theoretical underpinnings of the autobiographical memory development have experienced significant progression in context of explaining infantile amnesia which reflects the failure of adults to recall events from their early stages of life. It is quiet a mystery that children seem to remember a lot from their long-term memory bank however, as they grow old and reach the adulthood it becomes exceedingly difficult for them to recall their past memories specially pertaining to their early childhood. Primary Influence Theories During the beginning of pre-school period there is a lack of cognitive and social cognitive framework which is responsible for encoding memories which subsequently result in the failure of retrieving self-relevant memories in later stages of life. Mirror task of self-recognition (MSR) has been identified as the most vital instrument for the encoding and storage of the autobiographical memories (Carver Bauer, 2001, p. 731). On the other hand, it has been hypothesised that self-recognition plays an integral role in retrieving the autobiographical memories however, children in early ages do not poses the ability to understand the fundamentals of nature, personality and character which makes it difficult for them to gain delayed self-recognition. Studies suggest that the memory bank becomes actively responses as soon as a child develops an understanding of one-self and achieves significant representational awareness agreeing to this, the cognitive-motivational theory of adults autobiogr aphical memory presented by (Conway and Pleydell-Pearce 2000) suggest that self grounding is an essential part of retrieving the memories however, they further emphasised on the identification of goals and argued that the inability to reconstruct the memories in later stages of life has a very close link with the incongruity of self-goals with the encoding and retrieving period. Theories of Autobiographical Memory 10 Multiple influence theories A number of studies concur with the former concept of insufficient cognitive or social-cognitive framework during early preschool years, is the vital cause interfering with the encoding and retrieval of autobiographical memories however; they further attempted to analyse the critical abilities of an individual to encode and retrieve the memories, in the larger social and linguistic realm for the child (Conway, Pleydell-Pearce Whitecross, 2001, p. 495). Children are unable to comprehend with the causal-temporal sequence of events and cannot establish the order of self-relevant events into a chronological narrative which enables a frequent encoding and retrieval of autobiographical memories as the representational system largely depends upon linguistic abilities which subsequently develop after 4-5 years (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 149). A number of theories also suggest that social interaction is another significant element to retrieve autobiographical memories and further argue tha t children develop their critical cognitive capacities through social interactions and reminiscing practices. Furthermore, parental cooperation in discussing, evaluating and elaborating the past events also facilitates in providing rich information which consequently develops in the retrieval of autobiographical memories. It has also been studied, that apart from linguistic aid children also necessitate a reason to learn and recall past events which could be strong social bonds and close relationships which greatly helps them in self-recognition process and the more they recognise oneself in their early childhood, the more it becomes easier to reminisce their autobiographical memories (Conway, Pleydell-Pearce Whitecross, 2001, p. 450). Social Cultural Developmental Theories There are three significant arguments encompassing the social and cultural developmental theories pertaining to autobiographical memories including (i) gradual emergence of autobiographical memory across the preschool years; (ii) autobiographical Theories of Autobiographical Memory 11 memory system is highly reliant upon the language which is the vital tool for social interchanges; and (iii) autobiographical memory is characterised by cultural, gender, and individual differences across life that need significant explanation (Bamberg and Moissinac 2003, p. 398). It has been studied that the remembrance of events from a lifespan of a children and adult may considerably vary and it is quite evident that everybody is not capable of remembering more of events with identical detailing and in similar narrative way as expressed by others. This indicates that differences in both the course and time of emergence of the autobiographical memories and their eventual outcomes significantly vary depending upon age, sex, gender, personal experiences, social interactions and cultural differences (Fivush Nelson, 2004, p. 575). The development system begins with the birth followed by toddler memories that are instituted through social interactions with parents, siblings and relativ es, during which nascent conceptions are built in an individuals mind which might be unconsciously penetrated within the memory bank. Studies also suggest that infants are very much aware of their environment and also have an idea of core self which has been essentially related to intentionality. It has been studied that infants as per their core self have determined goals and actions which is fuelled by the infusion of certain skills, emerging concepts and social experiences (Bamberg and Moissinac 2003, p. 398). The later phase after 4-5 years when the children respond to what they hear and start talking by using linguistic aids results in the preservation of a sound memory bank which can be encoded and retrieved later in life depending upon an individuals capability to reminisce the autobiographical memories. The Core Components of Developmental System The key components of the development system facilitating the early development of memory base are characterised by the initiation of memories being stored within the memory Theories of Autobiographical Memory 12 bank of an unborn child. It has been studied that the unborn child are capable of differentiating and discriminating between the incoming information and are also capable to store the information over time. Children have been studied to have implicit memories that have been collected during the first trimester of pregnancy (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p. 158) however, the remembrance of such memory can be extremely short. On the other hand, it has been studied that the time duration in which a child emits a previously conditioned response can be extended with the use of reminders thus, strengthening their memory base. The role of language is extremely significant in the retrieval and narration of autobiographical memories. It has been studied that language is significant in the retrieval of autobiographical memory in three particular ways including (i) it is involved in providing the organisational and evaluative attribute of autobiographical memory; (ii) it significantly helps in devel oping and maintain social interactions which subsequently results in the organised representation of past experiences especially for children; and (iii) it facilitates in growing the awareness of young children to preserve memory as a representation of past experience which can be evaluated from multiple subjective perspectives (Fivush, 2001, p. 51). Adult memory talk is the third vital component of developmental system in which mothers play an integral role in developing the memory system of their children as they are the initial point of contact to children, enabling them to understand their external environment and educating them to respond. There is a significant distinction between primary consciousness and symbolic consciousness however, it has been studied that the consciousness of the past is greatly responsible in the developmental system as it helps in defining the concept of present, past and future in the autobiographical memory (Edelman and Tononi 2000, p. 99). Finally, the self-recognition or self-in-time is a closely related concept contributing in the developmental system and it has been studied that to relate oneself in the past or in the Theories of Autobiographical Memory 13 present necessitates the clear-cut mapping of two distinct representations (Perner 2000, p. 212). Conclusive Remarks The memories associated with early stages of life can significantly help in gaining an insight oneself thus, providing the opportunities for emotional growth and development. In addition to this, self-recognition and self-knowledge tremendously help in improving the overall personality and temperament of an individual as the autobiographical memories can facilitate in defining personal lacking hence, enabling the individual to transform into a better human being. The study has successfully established the grounds for understanding different types and neural origins of the autobiographical memory and subsequently unfolded varying aspects of theoretical paradigms associated with the subject area indicating that the memory bank can be developed with growing age. Moreover, the study also reveals that social interchanges and cultural influences in early stages of life have significant impacts on the memory development system. To conclude, it can be instituted that cognitive psychology is a vast subject having wide-range of theories related to autobiographical memory; and this study within its limited scope attempted to address numerous speculative areas of the concerned theme. Theories of Autobiographical Memory 14

Male Body Image Essay -- Media Self Image

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Body image is what you believe about your physical appearance. Images of beautiful men and women are displayed everywhere from billboards to television advertisements. Fortunately, everyone does not look the same. Looking at models and movie stars often can create a negative self image of oneself in relation to these images. Approximately 46 percent of men of normal weight think about how they look constantly or frequently (Cloud, 46). The emergence of men’s new obsession with body image is connected to pressures from the media, plastic surgeons, and peers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The media plays a primary role in the mushrooming fascination between men and their body image. An article in the New York Times said, â€Å"G.I. Joes have morphed over the last three decades into muscle-bound hunks that can harm the self-esteem of boys...† (Santelmo). Kids are more likely to develop a hero from someone close to them or someone they know about. Why not look up to the 26.8 inch biceps of the G.I. Joe Extreme? There have also been an increasing number of sleek male magazines. Included are photos of male models wearing only boxers or briefs which have 6-pack abs and a broad chest. Similar to the latest G.I. Joe, extreme bodybuilders are also a popular commodity of the magazines, flexing and grinning with barbarian-sized muscles. The common male might say, â€Å"I want to look like that.† The concept of these images is not entertainment, but is influence towards a ridiculous ultimatum, like â€Å"I have to be in s... Male Body Image Essay -- Media Self Image   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Body image is what you believe about your physical appearance. Images of beautiful men and women are displayed everywhere from billboards to television advertisements. Fortunately, everyone does not look the same. Looking at models and movie stars often can create a negative self image of oneself in relation to these images. Approximately 46 percent of men of normal weight think about how they look constantly or frequently (Cloud, 46). The emergence of men’s new obsession with body image is connected to pressures from the media, plastic surgeons, and peers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The media plays a primary role in the mushrooming fascination between men and their body image. An article in the New York Times said, â€Å"G.I. Joes have morphed over the last three decades into muscle-bound hunks that can harm the self-esteem of boys...† (Santelmo). Kids are more likely to develop a hero from someone close to them or someone they know about. Why not look up to the 26.8 inch biceps of the G.I. Joe Extreme? There have also been an increasing number of sleek male magazines. Included are photos of male models wearing only boxers or briefs which have 6-pack abs and a broad chest. Similar to the latest G.I. Joe, extreme bodybuilders are also a popular commodity of the magazines, flexing and grinning with barbarian-sized muscles. The common male might say, â€Å"I want to look like that.† The concept of these images is not entertainment, but is influence towards a ridiculous ultimatum, like â€Å"I have to be in s...

Free Bird :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Road of Life Today we pause, to look into our past as well as our future. We remember when we were young, starting our trek down the Road of Life. The first place on this long and winding road was the Meadow of Childhood. This is where we met many new people and formed numerous friendships; most of which still exist today. However, we were unable to stay here, and so continued on our journey through the doors of Quabbin Regional, becoming some of the mightiest Panthers in all the land. Stepping through those doors also marked our emergence into the Desert of Adolescence, where many of us became tangled in the thorn bushes along the way. But we made it out, and from there we took our swim across the River of Wisdom. When we reached the opposite bank we paused in the Forest of Enchantment, which is where we stand together today. Looking back we can no longer see the Meadow of Childhood, for it is nothing but a faint memory to us now. The only thing we can see from here is the Valley of Adulthood, and the long-awaited climb to success. And although most of us are sad, somehow we know that the hardest part of our journey has come to an end. For we have sipped from the Water of Morals, Climbed the Rock of love, Swum the Sea of Knowledge, And ascended the Mountain of Truth. And as we continue on our journey, and say our last good-byes, I would like to congratulate you mighty Panthers from Quabbin Regional High. -Jason Holihan Senior Class Poem, Class of 2001   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lynrd Skynyrd once asked, â€Å"if I leave here tomorrow, would you still remember me.† There were only a few days left before high school was finally over, and I couldn’t help but wonder who would remember me when I left Quabbin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last page was finally ripped off of the â€Å"Senior Class Countdown,† displaying the huge, colorful â€Å"0.† While most of my classmates sat in the hallway cleaning out their lockers, I was scurrying to room H121; Graduation Committee meeting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There we sat in the most uncomfortable chairs in the world putting the final touches on everything when it came time to decide whose poem would be chosen to represent our class at Baccalaureate. A vote had been taken at the previous meeting, and I waited uneasily for the results. With a unanimous vote, it was mine. My head began to spin and I thought I was going to throw up.

F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

The Great Gatsby F. Scott Fitzgerald   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Great Gatsby is a symbolic novel of the disintegration of the American dream in an era of extraordinary prosperity and material excess. On the surface, we see that it is a story about the love between a man and a woman but the overall theme is the collapse of the American dream in society. We find that every character in their own way is searching for their American dream but as a result, their desire for wealth and pleasure, caused them to find themselves lost in the corruption of the aristocrat society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Daisy is one of the characters that is trying to search for her American dream but the readers don’t really notice this because it seems that Daisy has everything already – wealth, a husband, love and family. It is everything she could possibly want but as we get to know Daisy, the reader sees that there is something else Daisy desires besides wealth and luxurious material. â€Å"I’m glad it’s a girl. And I hope she’ll be a fool – that’s the best thing a girl can be in this world, a beautiful little fool.† - Pg 21. Daisy’s America dream is to be this â€Å"beautiful little fool† she envisions. Daisy is beautiful and it is told through the characters that she is charming and beautiful but they could see right through her. They knew what she wanted in life and the fact that she was void of any loyalty or care. Daisy sought after this image of being this â€Å"beautiful little fool† so that she could hide her selfish ways and put on this fake faà §ade so the other characters would see she is innocent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the novel, Daisy acts snooty and stuck-up around the other characters as if she is better then them. She also acts very child-like when she cries over â€Å"beautiful shirts.† â€Å"They’re such beautiful shirts,† she sobbed, her voice muffled in the thick folds. â€Å"It makes me sad because I’ve never seen such – such beautiful shirts before.† – Pg 98. From this it shows that she only cares about luxurious material. Through her actions, we see that Daisy is not this girl that we should sympathize or look up to as â€Å"great† compared to Gatsby. â€Å"Even if we are cousins. You didn’t come to my wedding. I wasn’t back from the war. That’s true. She hesitated. Well, I’ve had a very bad time, Nick, and I’m pretty cynical about everything.

Anthem †Ayn Rand Essay

In the book Anthem, Equality 7-2521 (Equality) lived in a society where everyone was equal and treated with disrespect. The society had no tolerance for being different and having their own opinion and ideas. People couldn’t even pursue the career they dreamed of having. They were punished for disobeying any of these â€Å"rules†. Despite Equality’s strict society, his motivations in conducting his experiments are finding individuality, starting a new revolution, finding freedom, and trying to become a scholar. Equality’s inspiration, will, and determination lead him to spark a new revolution. After Equality found the black hole, he kept habitually going back to it, to discover new things and gain intelligence. He was finding more about himself and discovering that everyone was not the same and not everyone has the same talents in life. Even though it was against the government’s expectations about everyone being equal, Equality was happy to break the law, so he could learn more. Equality says, â€Å"And yet there is no shame in us and no regret. We say to ourselves that we are a wretch and a traitor. But we feel no burden upon our spirit and no burden upon our spirit and no fear in our heart.† (Rand 37) Equality was curious. He wanted to find out about the unknown. By showing his invention, he would spark a new revolution of light. He would inspire people to create and learn. True joy comes from what a man can do with inspiration, desire, will, to better people, and while doing that Equality learns that it will allow him to achieve more in society. Equality wanted to accomplish something by himself and prove that not everyone meets the expectations of their job. In other words that’s saying that just because you come from a poor family, doesn’t mean you’re going to be poor when you become an adult. Anyone can achieve what they set their mind to, and Equality made up his mind, he wanted to be different and he wasn’t going to give up. When Equality discovered his invention he wanted to prove the scholars wrong and to prove to them that not everything had been discovered. Equality says, â€Å"The Council of Scholars has said that we all know the things which exist and therefore the things which are not known by all do not exist. But we think that the Council of Scholars is blind. The secrets of this earth are not for all men to see, but only for those who will seek them. We know, for we have found a secret unknown to all our  brothers.† (Rand, 52) He just wanted to prove that he was smart enough to be a scholar. His invention proved that anyone can do great things and his brother’s look up to him. Equality only knows what he is capable of not â€Å"we†. Throughout the process of his invention, going to the Palace of Corrective Detention, going before the Council of Scholars, and running away, Equality has found his individuality. After he ran away, and found his new house, he came across the word â€Å"I† in the manuscripts, and he has started a new way of living. Equality says, â€Å"Then I called the Golden One, and I told her what I had read and what I learned. She looked at me and the first words she spoke were: â€Å"I love you.†Ã¢â‚¬ (Rand, 98) Equality is determined, strong, motivated, and won’t let anyone bring him down. â€Å"Then, tonight, we knew that we must escape. For tomorrow the World Council of Scholars is to meet in our city.† (Rand, 66), say’s Equality. Equality has realized how different he is than others. He is smarter than the Council and the Scholars. He knows now he can teach others about electricity. He can help people find individuality and help them find out how they’re unique. Joy comes from his heart because he has never done anything on his own and now he can achieve more expectations that just any street sweeper. Throughout the book, Equality goes against the government because he is searching for freedom. In the book, Equality talks about wanting to see himself but that is against the law, when he runs away, he finally seems himself. Equality wants to see his own image because, his entire life he has never seen it, and he has only seen the faces of his brothers. Equality sees his own face for the first time and says, â€Å"We sat still and we held our breath. For our face and our body were beautiful. Our face was not like the faces of our brothers, for we felt no pity when looking upon it. Our body was not like the bodies of our brothers, for our limbs were straight and thin and hard and strong. And we thought that we could trust this being who looked upon us from the stream, and that we had nothing to fear with this being.† (Rand, 80) Now that he is thinking for himself he wants to know more about himself. He never received the chance to find out what kind of person he was when he was young, so now that he is older he wants to know more about himself. He falls in love with Liberty the first time he sees her, and in their society they’re not supposed to take notice of the opposite gender.  Equality whispers, â€Å"For men are forbidden to take notice of women, and women are forbidden to take notice of men. But we think of one among women, they whose name is Liberty, and we think of no others.† (Rand, 38) When Equality and Liberty both run away they can finally be together, and start their family. Equality wanted Liberty, so he found a way, and got her. When Equality finally finds freedom, on the first day in the forest, he says, â€Å"We awake when a ray of sunlight fell across our face. We wanted to leap to our feet, as we have had to leap every morning of our life, but we remembered suddenly that no bell had rung and that there was no bell to ring anywhere. We lay on our back, we threw our arms out, and we looked up at the sky. The leaves had edges of silver that trembled and rippled like a river of green and fire flowing high above us.† (Rand, 78) Equality was free. In conclusion, Equality’s self-determination and perseverance allowed him to conduct his experiments without anyone telling him otherwise. Even though he had tough obstacles to climb over to have his invention, he didn’t let anything stop him. The Council of Scholars was his biggest challenge with his experiment and he overcame them. The biggest part of Equality conducting experiments was finding individuality within himself. He knew that people should not be treated the exact same and everyone had a mind of their own. Equality’s self-respect and determination paved the way to a life of his own.